TECHNICAL
1. TYPES OF HYDRO POWER
1.1 Run-off River Plants: These plants use the natural flow of the river with little or no water storage capacity. Power generation is directly dependent on the river's flow rate, which can vary seasonally. They are suitable for base load operation.
1.2 Peaking Plants (Daily Storage): These plants have a small reservoir to store water during off-peak hours (e.g., at night) and release it during peak demand hours to generate electricity. This allows them to meet peak load requirements effectively.
1.3 Seasonal/Pump Storage Hydro Power Plants: These are net consumers of energy but are crucial for grid stability. They have two reservoirs (upper and lower). During off-peak hours, excess grid power is used to pump water from the lower to the upper reservoir. During peak hours, water is released from the upper to the lower reservoir through turbines to generate electricity.
1.4 Large Dam Hydro Power Plants: These projects involve constructing a large dam to create a vast reservoir. This provides significant water storage for multi-year regulation, enabling consistent power generation throughout the year, along with benefits like flood control and irrigation.
COMPONENTS OF HYDRO POWER FACILITIES
Water Passages: The hydraulic circuit that conveys water to and from the turbine. Tunnel/Headrace: Carries water from the intake to the forebay or surge tank. Penstock: A large, high-pressure pipe that delivers water from the forebay or surge tank to the turbine. Gates & Inlet Valves: Control water flow into the penstock and turbine. They are used for shutdown and emergency isolation. Tailrace: The channel that carries water away from the turbine back to the river. Spillway: A safety structure that releases excess water from the dam/reservoir to prevent overtopping. Turbine-Generator Unit: The core electro-mechanical equipment where water's kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy (turbine) and then into electrical energy (generator). Components include the turbine runner, shaft, bearings, and the generator rotor and stator. Power Station Electrical Equipment: All equipment for power generation, control, and distribution within the plant. This includes transformers, motors for auxiliaries, automatic controls (like PLCs), and the switchyard. Transmission Lines - Interconnection: The lines that connect the power station's switchyard to the national grid, enabling the evacuation of generated power to load centers. TERMINOLOGIES USED FOR POWER STATIONPlant Factor (Capacity Factor): The ratio of actual energy generated over a period to the maximum possible energy it could have generated if running at full capacity. Plant Factor = (Actual Generation (kWh)) / (Installed Capacity (kW) × Total Hours) Availability Factor: The ratio of the total time a plant was available to run (whether generating or not) to the total time in the period. It indicates reliability. Load Factor: The ratio of average load to the peak load over a specific period. A high load factor indicates a more consistent demand. Load Factor = (Average Load) / (Peak Load) Plant Utilization Factor: The ratio of the maximum demand on the plant to its installed capacity. It shows how much of the installed capacity is actually used. Plant Utilization Factor = (Maximum Demand) / (Installed Capacity) Power Factor: In an AC circuit, it is the ratio of real power (kW) to apparent power (kVA). It represents the efficiency of power usage. For a generator, it's controlled by its excitation. SCOPE OF HYDEL GENERATIONExisting Hydel Stations in Pakistan and their significance in WAPDA System: Major stations include Tarbela, Ghazi-Barotha, Mangla, and Warsak. They are significant as they provide low-cost, renewable base-load power, help in grid frequency control, and provide irrigation and flood control benefits. Rehabilitation / Refurbishment of old Hydro Power Plants: Upgrading old plants (e.g., replacing turbines, generators, and controls) to increase their efficiency, output, and reliability. It's often more economical than building new plants. Future prospects of Hydel Development in Pakistan: Numerous sites have been identified, particularly in the north (e.g., Diamer-Bhasha, Dasu, Bunji). Development is crucial to meet growing energy demand, reduce reliance on expensive thermal power, and achieve energy security. Necessity of new Hydel Projects and their role in country economic: They provide cheap electricity, reduce fuel import bills, create jobs, boost local economies, and support industries. Advantage and disadvantages of Hydropower Projects:Advantages: Renewable, no fuel cost, low operating cost, long lifespan, provides irrigation and flood control, quick start-up. Disadvantages: High initial capital cost, long construction time, displacement of communities, environmental impact on river ecosystems, dependent on hydrology (rainfall/snowmelt).
ELECTRICALGENERATOR DESIGN OPERATION & MAINTENANCEPrinciples of Active & Reactive Power Control: In a synchronous generator, active power (MW) control is achieved by varying the prime mover (turbine) input (e.g., opening the wicket gates). Reactive power (MVAR) control is achieved by varying the generator's excitation (DC field current). The performance curve (Capability Curve) defines the safe operating limits of the generator considering stator current, rotor current, and end-region heating limits. Heat Run Test of generators: A test conducted to verify the temperature rise of various generator parts (stator winding, rotor winding, core, bearings) under rated load conditions, ensuring cooling systems are adequate. High Voltage Tests of Stator & Rotor Windings: Tests like DC High Potential (Hi-Pot) tests are performed to check the insulation integrity and dielectric strength of the windings against overvoltages. "Capacitance & Dissipation Factor" Test (Tan Delta Test): A diagnostic test on stator winding insulation. An increase in capacitance or dissipation factor (tan δ) indicates insulation aging, moisture, or contamination. Insulation Resistance Test of Stator & Rotor Winding: Using a Megger to measure the resistance of the insulation. A low value indicates moisture, dirt, or insulation breakdown. Isolated Phase Bus Ducts (IPB): A system of enclosed metal ducts, each containing one phase conductor, used to connect the generator to the step-up transformer. It is safe, reliable, and prevents phase-to-phase faults. Fire Extinguishing System for Generator: Typically a water spray (deluge) system or a CO₂ system that automatically activates to extinguish fires, usually in the generator end windings or IPB. Fault localization in case of fault in Stator Windings and Rotor Pole: Methods include visual inspection, megger testing, high-pot testing, and more advanced techniques like EL-CID (Electromagnetic Core Imperfection Detector) for stator core faults, and impedance or surge comparison tests for rotor windings. Brief description of Commissioning Tests and Special Field Tests of Generator: Commissioning tests (e.g., insulation resistance, polarity, phase sequence, and no-load/ short-circuit tests) verify correct installation. Special tests (e.g., efficiency tests, sudden short-circuit tests) provide detailed performance data. Preventive Maintenance check / tests of Generator and its schedule: Includes daily checks (vibration, temperatures), monthly checks (air gap, visual inspection), and annual/periodic tests (insulation resistance, polarization index, bearing oil analysis, thermography). The schedule is based on running hours and manufacturer recommendations. POWER TRANSFORMERSSpecifications of Transformers: Key specs include MVA rating, voltage ratio, vector group (e.g., YNd11), type of cooling (ONAN, ONAF, OFAF), tap changer range and type (OLTC, Off-circuit), and impedance voltage. Breathing System: As transformer oil expands and contracts with temperature, the breathing system (via a silica gel breather) allows air to move in and out of the conservator tank, removing moisture from the incoming air. Brief description of Commissioning Tests and Special Field Tests: Commissioning tests include insulation resistance, turns ratio, winding resistance, vector group verification, and oil tests. Special tests include Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) to detect winding deformation, and Partial Discharge (PD) measurement. Fault localization in case of faults in Transformer Winding, Insulation failure etc.: Faults are detected by protective relays (Buchholz, differential, overcurrent). Localization involves interpreting relay indications, gas analysis (DGA), and electrical tests (e.g., low-voltage impulse, SFRA) to pinpoint the fault's nature and location. Buchholz Protection, gas analysis and its role in fault analysis: A gas-actuated relay located in the pipe connecting the main tank to the conservator. It detects: Minor faults (e.g., core heating, partial discharge): Slow gas accumulation, causing an alarm. Major faults (e.g., winding short circuit): Rapid surge of oil, causing a trip.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) of the accumulated gas or oil sample identifies the type of fault (e.g., arcing, corona, overheating) based on the key gases produced. Preventive Maintenance check / tests of transformers and transformer oil and its schedule: Includes daily/ weekly visual checks (oil levels, leaks, temperature), periodic oil sampling for DGA, BDV (Breakdown Voltage), and moisture content analysis. Annual checks of the Buchholz relay, breather silica gel, and cooling system. STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEMPrinciple of Static Excitation System: DC current for the generator field is supplied from the generator terminals themselves through a step-down excitation transformer and controlled by thyristor (SCR) rectifiers. It has no rotating parts like a pilot exciter. Functions of the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR): The AVR is the brain of the system. It automatically adjusts the generator field current to maintain the generator terminal voltage at a preset value, despite changes in load. Function of Limiters: These are protective functions within the AVR: Active Ampere Limiter (Over-excitation limiter): Prevents the rotor from overheating by limiting excessive field current. Load Angle Limiter (Pole-slipping limiter): Prevents the generator from losing synchronism (pole-slipping) due to high load and low excitation. Reactive Ampere Limiter (Under-excitation limiter): Prevents the generator from drawing excessive leading MVARs, which can cause stator end-core overheating and loss of stability. Response Ratio of Excitation System: A measure of how quickly the excitation system can increase the field voltage in response to a voltage dip. A high response ratio is crucial for transient stability. POWER HOUSE PROTECTIONPrinciples and schemes of various protections for Generator and Transformers: Protection schemes are designed to quickly isolate faulty equipment. Key protections include: Differential Protection (87G, 87T): The primary protection for internal faults in generators and transformers. It compares currents entering and leaving the zone; a difference indicates a fault. Stator Earth Fault Protection (64G): Detects earth faults in the stator winding. Rotor Earth Fault Protection (64R): Detects earth faults in the rotor field circuit. Overcurrent (51), Overvoltage (59), Reverse Power (32) Protection.Bus Bar Protections, various types and their operation: Protects the critical node (switchgear bus) where multiple circuits connect. Types include High Impedance Differential Protection and Low Impedance Differential Protection (with check zone) . It operates with high speed to clear a bus fault before it causes extensive damage or system instability. Testing of protective relays, methods, schedule etc.: Relays are tested to ensure they operate correctly during faults. Methods include primary injection (injecting high current/voltage through the entire CT/PT chain) and secondary injection (injecting precise signals into the relay only). The schedule includes routine checks and calibration during planned outages. Role of Current Transformers (CTs) in Protection System: CTs step down the high primary currents to safe, standardized secondary values (e.g., 1A or 5A) for relays and meters. Their accuracy and saturation characteristics are critical for correct protection operation, especially during fault conditions. CIRCUIT BREAKERSPrinciples of Circuit Interruption: The process of opening electrical contacts in a medium (oil, air, SF6, vacuum) to extinguish the electric arc that forms. The medium cools, deionizes, and stretches the arc until it cannot reignite. Classification of breakers based on medium for Arc Interruption: Oil (BOCB, MOCB), Air (ACB, ABCB), SF6 (SF6 CB), and Vacuum (VCB). Specifications of Circuit Breakers (11 KV, 132 KV, 220 KV, 500 KV): Rated voltage, rated current, breaking capacity (kA), making capacity, short-time withstand current, operating mechanism type, and insulation level. Advantages of SF6 type Circuit Breakers over other types: Excellent arc-quenching properties, compact design, high reliability, low maintenance, quiet operation, and ability to handle high voltages and currents. Preventive Maintenance check / tests of Circuit Breakers and its schedule: Includes visual inspection, contact resistance test (Ducter test), insulation resistance test, timing test (open/close times), SF6 gas pressure check (and moisture analysis), and operational checks of the mechanism. The schedule depends on operating voltage, mechanism type, and number of operations. EARTHINGSignificance of Earthing and various Earthing methods: Earthing provides a safe path for fault currents, protects personnel from electric shock, and stabilizes voltage during transients. Methods include: System Earthing: Connecting the neutral point of the system (generator/transformer) to earth. Equipment Earthing: Connecting all metallic non-current carrying parts (enclosures, frames) to earth. Generator & Transformer Neutral Earthing: Methods include solid earthing, resistance earthing (NGR - Neutral Grounding Resistor) to limit earth fault current, or reactance earthing. NGR is common for generators to limit mechanical stress and core damage. Disadvantages of ungrounded system: During a single line-to-ground fault, the system can continue to operate, but the other phases rise to line voltage, stressing insulation. It makes fault location difficult and can lead to transient overvoltages causing a second fault elsewhere. Testing of Earthing Systems: Includes Earth Resistance Measurement (using a 3-point or 4-point fall-of-potential method) to ensure the resistance is within acceptable limits and Earth Loop Impedance Testing. STORAGE BATTERIESSignificance of a battery system for a power plant: Provides a reliable DC power source for critical systems like protection relays, switchgear operation (tripping/closing), emergency lighting, and control circuits, especially during a station blackout. Consideration in maintenance of battery system weekly / monthly schedules:Weekly: Check electrolyte levels, voltage, specific gravity (for lead-acid), and general cleanliness. Monthly: Check and record individual cell voltages, pilot cell specific gravity, and temperature. Commissioning Tests: Includes capacity test (verifying the battery can deliver its rated Ah capacity), connection resistance checks, and initial charging. Defects and remedies: Common defects include sulphation (reduced capacity - remedied by equalizing charge), low electrolyte level (top up with distilled water), corrosion of terminals (clean and apply petroleum jelly), and cell reversal (replace cell). INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERSGeneral purpose of instrument transformers: To step down high voltages and currents to safe, standardized low values (110V, 1A/5A) for measurement, protection, and control, providing isolation from high voltage. Capacitive Coupling Voltage Transformers (CVT) Working Principle: Used at high voltages (132kV+). It uses a capacitive voltage divider to step down the voltage to an intermediate value, which is then further stepped down by an electromagnetic transformer. It also serves as a coupling capacitor for Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC). Various Tests on Instrument Transformers: Includes polarity test, ratio test, excitation (magnetizing) current test, insulation resistance test, and burden test. SCADA (SUPERVISORY CONTROL & DATA ACQUISITION)General configuration of SCADA, how main computer front end and R.T.Us are linked with each other: A SCADA system has: MTU (Master Terminal Unit): The central computer system at the control center. RTUs (Remote Terminal Units): Field devices located at the power plant or substation that collect data from sensors and execute control commands. Communication Network: The link between MTU and RTUs, which can be fiber optic, radio, microwave, or pilot wire. The MTU polls RTUs for data and sends commands. Adaptive works for connecting power system to Remote Terminal Units: RTUs are connected to plant equipment via hardwired I/O (digital inputs for status, analog inputs for measurements) and via communication protocols (e.g., Modbus, IEC 61850) to intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) like protection relays and PLCs. LATEST STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEMS AND ADVANTAGESFunction: Same core function (AVR and limiters) but with digital control using microprocessors/DSPs. Important Parts: Digital AVR controller, thyristor bridge (rectifier), excitation transformer, de-excitation circuit (Crowbar). Advantages over analog systems: Higher accuracy, faster response, greater reliability, self-diagnostics, easier parameter setting, communication capabilities (to SCADA), and ability to implement complex control and limiting functions (Power System Stabilizer - PSS). Testing, Calibration and Maintenance: Testing involves verifying AVR response, limiter functions, and firing pulse accuracy. Calibration is done via software. Maintenance includes cleaning cards, checking cooling fans, and verifying thyristor health. PLC BASED DIGITAL NUMERICAL PROTECTION RELAYSFunction: Perform all protection, control, and monitoring functions using digital signal processing. They replace multiple discrete analog relays. Parts: Analog input module (for CT/PT signals), microprocessor/DSP, digital input/output modules, power supply, and communication port. Testing: Can be tested using advanced secondary test sets that inject simulated fault waveforms (e.g., via OMICRON). Testing verifies logic, timing, and accuracy. Adjustments: Settings (pickup values, time delays, curves) are adjusted via software. Maintenance: Minimal; mainly involves checking self-diagnostics, cleaning, and ensuring proper auxiliary supply. GIS (GAS INSULATED SWITCHGEAR) SYSTEMNeeds & Advantage: Needed where space is limited (e.g., underground powerhouses, urban areas). Advantages: Extremely compact, high reliability, immune to environmental pollution (dust, salt), and safe as all live parts are enclosed in grounded metal enclosures filled with SF6 gas. Working Principle: All bus bars, circuit breakers, disconnectors, and CTs/VTs are housed in aluminum enclosures filled with SF6 gas at a pressure of a few bars, which provides excellent insulation between live parts and earth, and between phases. Maintenance & Trouble Shooting: Maintenance is low due to sealed construction. It includes periodic checks of SF6 gas pressure, gas quality (moisture, decomposition products), and visual inspection of insulators via viewports. Troubleshooting involves gas leak detection (using sniffer or ultrasonic detectors) and monitoring partial discharge activity. MAJOR FAULT HISTORY OF HYDEL POWER PLANTSGenerators: Stator winding insulation failure (due to thermal aging, loose wedges, contamination), rotor earth faults, bearing failures, core overheating. Turbines: Cavitation damage (pitting of runner blades), fatigue cracking in runners or shafts, wicket gate jamming, bearing failures. Breakers: Failure to interrupt fault current (often due to mechanism problems or contaminated interrupting medium), insulation breakdown. Any other E&M equipment: Excitation system failures (thyristor burnout), transformer failures (winding faults due to through faults or insulation deterioration), governor oil leaks or control failures. Damages of Civil Structure: Spillway gate jamming or failure, erosion of stilling basins, cracking in dam/concrete structures, tunnel/penstock leakage or collapse.
MECHANICALHYDRAULIC TURBINESPower calculation formula: P = η × ρ × g × Q × H P = Power (Watts), η = Efficiency, ρ = Density of water (kg/m³), g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²), Q = Flow rate (m³/s), H = Net Head (m). Types of Turbines and classification according to head:Impulse Turbine (Pelton): For high head, low flow applications. Reaction Turbines:Francis: For medium head, medium flow applications. Kaplan/Propeller: For low head, high flow applications. Criteria for selection of turbine: Primarily the net head and flow rate available. Other factors include specific speed, efficiency, cavitation characteristics, and cost. Synchronous Speed, Specific Speed, Runaway Speed:Synchronous Speed (Nsync): The speed at which the generator must rotate to produce the desired frequency (Nsync = 120f / P). Specific Speed (Ns): A dimensionless number used to characterize turbine types. It is the speed at which a geometrically similar turbine would operate under a unit head (1m) to produce unit power (1 kW). Runaway Speed: The maximum speed a turbine would reach if suddenly fully unloaded (generator disconnected from grid) with maximum gate opening. It can be 1.8 to 2.5 times the normal speed and is a critical design parameter. Components of Francis, Pelton and Kaplan Turbines:Pelton: Runner with buckets, spear (needle) valve, nozzle, deflector plate. Francis: Spiral casing, stay vanes, wicket gates, runner (with fixed blades), draft tube. Kaplan: Spiral casing, stay vanes, wicket gates, runner with adjustable blades, hub, draft tube. Cavitations phenomenon, its effects and remedies: Formation of vapor bubbles in low-pressure areas (e.g., downstream of runner blades) which implode violently, causing pitting, noise, vibration, and efficiency loss. Remedies: Proper turbine design (setting the turbine at a correct elevation below tailwater), operating within limits, and using cavitation-resistant materials. Preventive Maintenance checks / tests and schedule: Includes vibration monitoring, lubrication of bearings, inspection of runner, seals, and wicket gates for wear/cavitation, and checking alignment. Commissioning Tests of Turbine: Includes overspeed test, governor stability test, load rejection tests, efficiency tests, and guarantee tests. SPEED REGULATION OF TURBINESTypes & working principle of Mech. Hydraulic Governors: Older systems. They use a mechanical centrifugal pendulum (flyball) to sense speed. This movement controls a pilot valve, which directs high-pressure oil to a servomotor that opens or closes the turbine's wicket gates/needle valve to maintain speed. Commissioning tests and routine checks / tests of governor system: Commissioning tests include stability tests, load rejection tests, and verification of speed droop. Routine checks include oil level/quality, checking for leaks, verifying pilot valve operation, and testing limit switches. ACCESSORIES / AUXILIARY EQUIPMENTFire Extinguishing Methods in Power House: Include water sprinkler/deluge systems (for transformers, generators), CO₂ systems (for electrical/electronic rooms), foam systems (for oil hazards), and portable fire extinguishers (various types). Pumps of various kinds and their applications in Hydel Stations: Centrifugal pumps (for cooling water, dewatering), submersible pumps (sump pits), gear pumps (lubrication systems), and piston pumps (high-pressure oil systems). Cranes of various types and their applications: Overhead bridge cranes/EOT cranes (for main powerhouse erection and maintenance), gantry cranes (for intake/outlet gates), and mobile cranes. REHABILITATION OF HYDEL STATIONSNecessity of Rehabilitation /Refurbishment of Hydel units and its advantages: To restore original output/efficiency, increase capacity (uprating), improve reliability, extend plant life, and comply with modern safety/environmental standards. It's cheaper and faster than new construction. Different Electrical and Mechanical components requiring rehabilitation: Turbine runners (new profile), generator stator/rotor windings (re-winding), excitation systems (digital upgrade), governors (digital conversion), transformers, and control/protection systems (PLC/SCADA based). Scope of Rehabilitation in the existing Hydel Stations: Includes feasibility studies, detailed engineering, procurement of new equipment, installation and commissioning, and performance testing. FRANCIS, KAPLAN AND PELTON TURBINES & THEIR PARTSWorking principal:Pelton (Impulse): High-velocity water jet from a nozzle strikes the spoon-shaped buckets on the runner, imparting impulse force and causing rotation. Francis (Reaction): Water under high pressure enters the runner radially, and as it flows through the runner and turns towards the exit, it releases both pressure and kinetic energy (reaction force) to rotate the runner. Kaplan (Reaction - Axial): Water flows axially through the adjustable propeller-like runner blades. The blades' angle changes with flow to maintain high efficiency. Types & advantages:Pelton: Suitable for very high heads. Francis: Versatile, covering a wide range of heads. Kaplan: Excellent efficiency over a wide range of flows due to adjustable runner blades. Major parts and description: (See components section above). Overhauling: A major maintenance activity involving dismantling the turbine, inspecting all parts (runner, shaft, bearings, seals), repairing or replacing worn/damaged components, and reassembling. TRASH RACK CLEANING MACHINESPurpose: To automatically clean the trash racks (screens) at the water intake, removing debris (leaves, wood, plastic) that would otherwise clog the racks, reduce flow and head, and potentially damage the turbine. Types & advantages: Mechanical rakes that travel along the rack, either on a chain drive or a cable hoist. Advantages include reduced manual labor, continuous cleaning, and prevention of head loss. Working principal: A rake descends into the rack, engages the debris, and is then lifted to carry the debris to a collection point (conveyor or dump site). Maintenance & overhauling: Includes lubrication of chains/cables, inspection of rake tines for wear, checking drive motors and gearboxes, and periodic overhaul of the hoist mechanism. DIGITAL GOVERNING SYSTEM AND PID CONTROLLERSBasic function & Control: To precisely control turbine speed and power output by adjusting the wicket gates (or needle valve). It receives signals for speed (frequency) and power setpoints. Types: Typically electro-hydraulic, where a digital controller (electronic) commands a hydraulic system to move the servomotors. Advantages over mechanical governors: Faster response, higher accuracy, better stability, easy adjustment of control parameters, self-diagnostics, and remote control capability. Maintenance, Testing, Trouble Shooting: Maintenance involves checking hydraulic components (pumps, valves, oil). Testing includes verifying PID response, performing load rejection tests, and checking transducer calibration. Troubleshooting uses software diagnostics to identify faulty sensors, servo-valves, or control logic. PID Controller: A control loop mechanism using three terms: Proportional (P): Responds to the current error. Integral (I): Responds to the accumulation of past errors (eliminates steady-state error). Derivative (D): Responds to the rate of change of error (improves stability and response time).
ENGINEERING ECONOMICSECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GENERATION / HYDEL PROJECTSOpportunity Cost: The benefit or value of the next best alternative that is forgone when making a choice. E.g., The water used for power generation has the opportunity cost of not being used for irrigation. Shadow Pricing: Assigning a monetary value to non-market goods or externalities, such as the social cost of carbon (environmental impact) or the economic cost of labor in a country with high unemployment, to reflect their true value to society in an economic analysis. Sunk Cost: Costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered. These should be ignored in future decision-making (e.g., money already spent on a failed feasibility study). Net Present Value (NPV): The sum of the present values of all future cash flows (benefits minus costs) over a project's life, discounted by a chosen rate. A positive NPV indicates a financially viable project. Internal Rate of Return (IRR): The discount rate at which the NPV of all cash flows from a project equals zero. It represents the project's expected rate of return. A project is acceptable if IRR is greater than the cost of capital. Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR): The ratio of the present value of benefits to the present value of costs. A BCR greater than 1 indicates a desirable project. Optimization of the project size of a generation project: Finding the installed capacity that maximizes the NPV or BCR, considering factors like available water, load demand, and cost of equipment. Long Run Marginal Cost (LRMC): The cost of supplying an additional unit of electricity in the long run, considering all future capital and operating costs. It's used for setting efficient tariffs. Difference between Financial and Economic Analysis:Financial analysis evaluates the project's profitability from the investor's perspective, using market prices. Economic analysis evaluates the project's contribution to the overall economy, using shadow prices to account for externalities and social costs/benefits. FEASIBILITY STUDY OF HYDRO POWER PROJECTHydrological analysis: Studying historical rainfall, river flow data, and snowmelt patterns to estimate the water availability (firm flow and energy potential) and design flood for the project. Project development alternatives: Evaluating different options for dam height, powerhouse location (surface/underground), turbine type, and installed capacity to find the optimal configuration. Cost estimates for equipment and construction: Detailed estimation of all costs, including civil works (dam, tunnels), electro-mechanical equipment (turbines, generators), transmission lines, land acquisition, and resettlement. Energy production estimates & utilization: Calculating the annual energy generation based on hydrology and plant characteristics, and determining how this energy will be used in the grid (peak/base load). Construction & Project implementation plan: A detailed schedule (often using Gantt charts) outlining the sequence of activities, timelines, milestones, and resource allocation for project execution. Economic & Financial Analysis: Performing NPV, IRR, BCR calculations to assess viability from both economic and financial perspectives. Environmental & socio economic impact: Assessing the project's impact on the local ecosystem, biodiversity, water quality, and local communities (displacement, livelihoods). This leads to a mitigation plan.
COMPUTER (Information Technology)Introduction to Computer System: An electronic device that processes data and performs tasks as per instructions. M.S. Word and M.S. Office:MS Word: Word processing software for creating documents, letters, reports. MS Excel: Spreadsheet software for data organization, calculations, charting, and analysis. MS Power Point: Presentation software for creating slideshows. Characteristic of computer: Speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, huge storage capacity, and automation. Types of computer: Supercomputers, Mainframe computers, Mini-computers, Microcomputers (PCs, Laptops). Computer hardware and software:Hardware: Physical, tangible parts of a computer (e.g., CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse, hard disk). Software: Set of instructions (programs) that tell the hardware what to do (e.g., Operating System, MS Office, Games). Types of memory and functions:Primary Memory (Main Memory): Directly accessed by CPU. Volatile (loses data on power off). Includes RAM (Random Access Memory) for temporary data storage and ROM (Read Only Memory) for permanent boot instructions. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Storage): Non-volatile, used for permanent storage of data and programs (e.g., Hard Disk Drive, SSD, USB Drive). Operating systems: System software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS, Android). Input/Output and storage devices:Input: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone. Output: Monitor, Printer, Speaker. Storage: Hard Disk, SSD, CD/DVD, USB Flash Drive. Types of computer languages:Machine Language: Lowest level, binary (0/1). Assembly Language: Uses mnemonics, needs an assembler. High-Level Language: Uses English-like statements (e.g., C++, Python, Java), needs a compiler or interpreter. Programming and functions of compiler:Compiler: A program that translates the entire high-level language source code into machine language (object code) at once, before execution. Interpreter: Translates and executes the source code line by line. Main features of utility of MS Word, MS Excel, MS Power Point:Word: Formatting text, spell check, tables, mail merge. Excel: Formulas, functions, pivot tables, charts, data sorting/filtering. PowerPoint: Slide layouts, animations, transitions, slide master, inserting media. Internet, E-Mail & Computer Virus:Internet: A global network connecting millions of computers. E-Mail: Electronic mail for sending messages and files over the internet. Computer Virus: A malicious software program that can replicate itself and spread to other computers, often causing harm by corrupting or deleting data.
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